7 Indexes

Using Bitmap Indexes in Data Warehouses

Bitmap indexes are widely used in data warehousing environments. The environments typically have large amounts of data and ad hoc queries, but a low level of concurrent DML transactions. For such applications, bitmap indexing provides:

• Reduced response time for large classes of ad hoc queries.

• Reduced storage requirements compared to other indexing techniques.

• Dramatic performance gains even on hardware with a relatively small number of CPUs or a small amount of memory.

• Efficient maintenance during parallel DML and loads.

Fully indexing a large table with a traditional B-tree index can be prohibitively expensive in terms of disk space because the indexes can be several times larger than the data in the table. Bitmap indexes are typically only a fraction of the size of the indexed data in the table.

An index provides pointers to the rows in a table that contain a given key value. A regular index stores a list of rowids for each key corresponding to the rows with that key value. In a bitmap index, a bitmap for each key value replaces a list of rowids.

Each bit in the bitmap corresponds to a possible rowid, and if the bit is set, it means that the row with the corresponding rowid contains the key value. A mapping function converts the bit position to an actual rowid, so that the bitmap index provides the same functionality as a regular index. Bitmap indexes store the bitmaps in a compressed way. If the number of distinct key values is small, bitmap indexes compress better and the space saving benefit compared to a B-tree index becomes even better.

Bitmap indexes are most effective for queries that contain multiple conditions in the WHERE clause. Rows that satisfy some, but not all, conditions are filtered out before the table itself is accessed. This improves response time, often dramatically. If you are unsure of which indexes to create, the SQL Access Advisor can generate recommendations on what to create. As the bitmaps from bitmap indexes can be combined quickly, it is usually best to use single-column bitmap indexes.

When creating bitmap indexes, you should use NOLOGGING and COMPUTE STATISTICS. In addition, you should keep in mind that bitmap indexes are usually easier to destroy and re-create than to maintain.

Cardinality

The advantages of using bitmap indexes are greatest for columns in which the ratio of the number of distinct values to the number of rows in the table is small. We refer to this ratio as the degree of cardinality. A gender column, which has only two distinct values (male and female), is optimal for a bitmap index. However, data warehouse administrators also build bitmap indexes on columns with higher cardinalities.

For example, on a table with one million rows, a column with 10,000 distinct values is a candidate for a bitmap index. A bitmap index on this column can outperform a B-tree index, particularly when this column is often queried in conjunction with other indexed columns. In fact, in a typical data warehouse environments, a bitmap index can be considered for any non-unique column.

B-tree indexes are most effective for high-cardinality data: that is, for data with many possible values, such as customer_name or phone_number. In a data warehouse, B-tree indexes should be used only for unique columns or other columns with very high cardinalities (that is, columns that are almost unique). The majority of indexes in a data warehouse should be bitmap indexes.

In ad hoc queries and similar situations, bitmap indexes can dramatically improve query performance. AND and OR conditions in the WHERE clause of a query can be resolved quickly by performing the corresponding Boolean operations directly on the bitmaps before converting the resulting bitmap to rowids. If the resulting number of rows is small, the query can be answered quickly without resorting to a full table scan.

Example 7-1 Bitmap Index

The following shows a portion of a company's customers table.

SELECT cust_id, cust_gender, cust_marital_status, cust_income_level
FROM customers;

CUST_ID    C CUST_MARITAL_STATUS  CUST_INCOME_LEVEL
---------- - -------------------- ---------------------
... 
        70 F                      D: 70,000 - 89,999
        80 F married              H: 150,000 - 169,999
        90 M single               H: 150,000 - 169,999
       100 F                      I: 170,000 - 189,999
       110 F married              C: 50,000 - 69,999
       120 M single               F: 110,000 - 129,999
       130 M                      J: 190,000 - 249,999
       140 M married              G: 130,000 - 149,999
...

Because cust_gender, cust_marital_status, and cust_income_level are all low-cardinality columns (there are only three possible values for marital status, two possible values for gender, and 12 for income level), bitmap indexes are ideal for these columns. Do not create a bitmap index on cust_id because this is a unique column. Instead, a unique B-tree index on this column provides the most efficient representation and retrieval.

Table 7-1 illustrates the bitmap index for the cust_gender column in this example. It consists of two separate bitmaps, one for gender.

Table 7-1 Sample Bitmap Index

	gender='M'	gender='F'
cust_id 70	0	1
cust_id 80	0	1
cust_id 90	1	0
cust_id 100	0	1
cust_id 110	0	1
cust_id 120	1	0
cust_id 130	1	0
cust_id 140	1	0

Each entry (or bit) in the bitmap corresponds to a single row of the customers table. The value of each bit depends upon the values of the corresponding row in the table. For example, the bitmap cust_gender='F' contains a one as its first bit because the gender is F in the first row of the customers table. The bitmap cust_gender='F' has a zero for its third bit because the gender of the third row is not F.

An analyst investigating demographic trends of the company's customers might ask, "How many of our married customers have an income level of G or H?" This corresponds to the following query:

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM customers
WHERE cust_marital_status = 'married' 
AND cust_income_level IN ('H: 150,000 - 169,999', 'G: 130,000 - 149,999');

Bitmap indexes can efficiently process this query by merely counting the number of ones in the bitmap illustrated in Figure 7-1. The result set will be found by using bitmap OR merge operations without the necessity of a conversion to rowids. To identify additional specific customer attributes that satisfy the criteria, use the resulting bitmap to access the table after a bitmap to rowid conversion.

Figure 7-1 Executing a Query Using Bitmap Indexes

Description of "Figure 7-1 Executing a Query Using Bitmap Indexes"

How to Determine Candidates for Using a Bitmap Index

Bitmap indexes should help when either the fact table is queried alone, and there are predicates on the indexed column, or when the fact table is joined with two or more dimension tables, and there are indexes on foreign key columns in the fact table, and predicates on dimension table columns.

A fact table column is a candidate for a bitmap index when the following conditions are met:

• There are 100 or more rows for each distinct value in the indexed column. When this limit is met, the bitmap index will be much smaller than a regular index, and you will be able to create the index much faster than a regular index. An example would be one million distinct values in a multi-billion row table.

And either of the following are true:

• The indexed column will be restricted in queries (referenced in the WHERE clause).

or

• The indexed column is a foreign key for a dimension table. In this case, such an index will make star transformation more likely.

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM customers WHERE cust_marital_status IS NULL;

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM customers;

SELECT time_id, cust_id, amount_sold FROM sales;

TIME_ID   CUST_ID    AMOUNT_SOLD
--------- ---------- -----------
01-JAN-98      29700        2291
01-JAN-98       3380         114
01-JAN-98      67830         553
01-JAN-98     179330           0
01-JAN-98     127520         195
01-JAN-98      33030         280
...

CREATE BITMAP INDEX sales_cust_gender_bjix
ON sales(customers.cust_gender)
FROM sales, customers
WHERE sales.cust_id = customers.cust_id
LOCAL NOLOGGING COMPUTE STATISTICS;

SELECT sales.time_id, customers.cust_gender, sales.amount_sold
FROM sales, customers
WHERE sales.cust_id = customers.cust_id;

TIME_ID   C AMOUNT_SOLD
--------- - -----------
01-JAN-98 M        2291
01-JAN-98 F         114
01-JAN-98 M         553
01-JAN-98 M           0
01-JAN-98 M         195
01-JAN-98 M         280
01-JAN-98 M          32
...

CREATE BITMAP INDEX sales_cust_gender_ms_bjix
ON sales(customers.cust_gender, customers.cust_marital_status)
FROM sales, customers
WHERE sales.cust_id = customers.cust_id
LOCAL NOLOGGING COMPUTE STATISTICS;

CREATE BITMAP INDEX sales_c_gender_p_cat_bjix
ON sales(customers.cust_gender, products.prod_category)
FROM sales, customers, products
WHERE sales.cust_id = customers.cust_id
AND sales.prod_id = products.prod_id
LOCAL NOLOGGING COMPUTE STATISTICS;

CREATE BITMAP INDEX sales_co_country_name_bjix
ON sales(countries.country_name)
FROM sales, customers, countries
WHERE sales.cust_id = customers.cust_id
  AND customers.country_id = countries.country_id
LOCAL NOLOGGING COMPUTE STATISTICS;

Using B-Tree Indexes in Data Warehouses

A B-tree index is organized like an upside-down tree. The bottom level of the index holds the actual data values and pointers to the corresponding rows, much as the index in a book has a page number associated with each index entry.

In general, use B-tree indexes when you know that your typical query refers to the indexed column and retrieves a few rows. In these queries, it is faster to find the rows by looking at the index. However, using the book index analogy, if you plan to look at every single topic in a book, you might not want to look in the index for the topic and then look up the page. It might be faster to read through every chapter in the book. Similarly, if you are retrieving most of the rows in a table, it might not make sense to look up the index to find the table rows. Instead, you might want to read or scan the table.

B-tree indexes are most commonly used in a data warehouse to enforce unique keys. In many cases, it may not even be necessary to index these columns in a data warehouse, because the uniqueness was enforced as part of the preceding ETL processing, and because typical data warehouse queries may not work better with such indexes. B-tree indexes are more common in environments using third normal form schemas. In general, bitmap indexes should be more common than B-tree indexes in most data warehouse environments.

B-tree and bitmap indexes have different maximum column limitations. See Oracle Database SQL Language Reference for these limitations.

Using Index Compression

Bitmap indexes are always stored in a patented, compressed manner without the need of any user intervention. B-tree indexes, however, can be stored specifically in a compressed manner to enable huge space savings, storing more keys in each index block, which also leads to less I/O and better performance.

Key compression lets you compress a B-tree index, which reduces the storage overhead of repeated values. In the case of a nonunique index, all index columns can be stored in a compressed format, whereas in the case of a unique index, at least one index column has to be stored uncompressed.

Generally, keys in an index have two pieces, a grouping piece and a unique piece. If the key is not defined to have a unique piece, Oracle provides one in the form of a rowid appended to the grouping piece. Key compression is a method of breaking off the grouping piece and storing it so it can be shared by multiple unique pieces. The cardinality of the chosen columns to be compressed determines the compression ratio that can be achieved. So, for example, if a unique index that consists of five columns provides the uniqueness mostly by the last two columns, it is most optimal to choose the three leading columns to be stored compressed. If you choose to compress four columns, the repetitiveness will be almost gone, and the compression ratio will be worse.

Although key compression reduces the storage requirements of an index, it can increase the CPU time required to reconstruct the key column values during an index scan. It also incurs some additional storage overhead, because every prefix entry has an overhead of four bytes associated with it.

Choosing Between Local Indexes and Global Indexes

B-tree indexes on partitioned tables can be global or local. With Oracle8i and earlier releases, Oracle recommended that global indexes not be used in data warehouse environments because a partition DDL statement (for example, ALTER TABLE ... DROP PARTITION) would invalidate the entire index, and rebuilding the index is expensive. Since Oracle Database 10g, global indexes can be maintained without Oracle marking them as unusable after DDL. This enhancement makes global indexes more effective for data warehouse environments.

However, local indexes will be more common than global indexes. Global indexes should be used when there is a specific requirement which cannot be met by local indexes (for example, a unique index on a non-partitioning key, or a performance requirement).

Bitmap indexes on partitioned tables are always local.